Michael Faraday

Record year1831

M rationaleA reproducible framework delivered by a series of experiments with adjacent circuits, magnets, and moving coils: change triggers, transient response, reversal of direction, and no maintenance at steady state. It turned a previously unclearly identified electromagnetic conversion relation into testable fundamental physical knowledge; mature mathematics, field equations, machines, power grids, and the benefits to industrial society are excluded.

attribution rationaleFaraday's repeated controlled experiments, interpretation, and authorship are central at 60%; separate pools retain actual electromagnetic prior work, the large magnet and Christie's assistance, laboratory/publication networks, instrument makers, and unknown inputs. Henry's independent private discovery is not established as an input to this public outcome, so it is not transferred to Faraday.

overlap boundaryBounded knowledge from the first experimental series of 1831; it excludes later mature field theory, machines, and power grids.

Record year1865

M rationaleIt placed electricity, magnetism, and light within a general framework of fields and waves. Its original functional core continues to be used in electrodynamics teaching and is assessed as a cross-generational scientific foundation; later verification, vector notation, and industrial applications are separate successor achievements.

attribution rationaleMaxwell's 55% corresponds to the derivation of fields and waves and the theoretical synthesis of light; Faraday's 12% corresponds to experimental inputs such as magneto-optics, while the jointly measured 12% of Weber and Kohlrausch corresponds to the basis for electrical measurement. Fizeau and Foucault each receive 6% for independent optical measurements and must not be described as a joint experiment; the documented teaching dissemination at Caltech and MIT totals 5%, and the remaining 4% is left unallocated. The teaching share covers only verified dissemination activities and does not stand in for all later verification.

overlap boundaryLimited to the knowledge end-state of the publicly disclosed 1865 equations, transverse waves, and explanation of light; it does not absorb Hertz, later equation forms, or modern applications.

Record year1833

M rationaleA public series connected decomposition, equivalent relations, and the terminology of electrodes/ions into usable knowledge; stable propositions, quantitative relations, and conceptual language formed a reusable professional outcome. The boundary covers only that electrochemical system, excluding electromagnetic induction, later physical chemistry, and broader electromagnetism.

attribution rationaleThe experiments and terminology results personally completed and published in synthesis by Faraday are central; Whewell's contribution is limited to terminological consultation, while earlier work, apparatus, assistants, and unresolved parts of publication are retained, so Faraday's central share is 80%.

overlap boundaryLimited to the sequence of decomposition, equivalents, and terminology; it excludes later physical chemistry.

Record year1845

M rationaleA narrow, closed effect supported by current switching, heavy glass, and polarization control: the control conditions make it a testable physical relation rather than an incidental observation. The boundary excludes diamagnetism, field theory, the unification of electromagnetism and light, and devices.

attribution rationaleFaraday's design, execution, and recording in September 1845 of decisive experiments including current switching and material controls are central; the Royal Institution provided laboratory and apparatus, while manufacture, assistants, and prior work remain incompletely known, so the central share is 75%.

overlap boundaryOnly the bounded effect involving heavy glass, polarization, and on/off current control.

Record year1845

M rationaleReusable classification of magnetic responses formed by repeated controlled observations across many materials and shapes; the new phenomenon, directionality, repulsive behavior, and cross-sample checks changed how the profession organized the behavior of such substances. Microscopic theory, complete magnetic theory, and later applications are not included.

attribution rationaleControlled trials and classification are treated as work directly completed by Faraday; A. C. Becquerel's prior observations, Coulomb's earlier observations, and Wheatstone's specific introduction to Becquerel each retain small shares, while laboratory and apparatus support are not fictitiously attributed to individuals. It also makes clear that A. C. Becquerel was the father and is not wrongly mapped to Edmond.

overlap boundaryIt counts only the observed classification of magnetic responses; microscopic theory and later applications belong to other achievements.

Record year1821

M rationaleA publicly described voltaic connection and apparatus achieved continuous mutual rotation of a wire and magnetic pole, closing the relation from electrical action to continuous mechanical motion. It expressly excludes later induction, general motor theory, field theory, and industrial systems.

attribution rationaleFaraday's construction, operation, and publication are the decisive contribution; de la Rive's information about a ring apparatus, Ampère's theory, Ørsted's foundation, Wollaston's rotation idea, Hare's calorimotor, and the Royal Institution each receive bounded shares. Materials and labor remain unresolved, so the central share is only 55%.

overlap boundaryOnly the continuous-rotation apparatus and observations; induction, modern motors, and industrial systems are excluded.

Record year1823

M rationaleDistinguishing experiments on the condensation of multiple gases under cooling in sealed tubes, including physical observations and records of failure, form an auditable experimental family; multiple successes, failures, and sources of error exceed an isolated observation. It does not claim the first liquefaction of all gases or count general cryogenics.

attribution rationaleFaraday's execution of the distinguishing experimental program is primary; Davy supplied the request and overall direction, Davies Gilbert gave narrowly bounded density advice, and glassworkers, chemicals, safety, assistants, and publication are not individually confirmed, so substantial shares are retained and Faraday is set at 65%.

overlap boundaryLimited to differentiated condensation experiments and failure records under cooling in sealed tubes.

Record year1836

M rationaleA human-scale enclosure and sensitive tests advanced small-container observations into clear, public, reproducible knowledge of electrostatic enclosure; the result can transfer across particular small apparatuses. It did not deliver a universal theory of electromagnetic shielding; its domain is limited to measured electrostatic conditions.

attribution rationaleFaraday's report of the large-room construction and controlled inside/outside tests is the decisive direct chain; Coulomb's prior observation of conductor surfaces receives a small share, while unnamed construction and Royal Institution resources retain a large unresolved share.

overlap boundaryOnly the measured electrostatic conditions of a strongly charged exterior and no detected interior effect; it does not extrapolate to universal shielding.

Record year1825

M rationaleA publicly reported, reproducible isolation of a new substance and characterization of multiple physical properties and composition; professionals can identify and continue studying the object. Isolation, phase behavior, and repeated compositional measurements close a knowledge outcome, but the boundary remains a bounded characterization of one substance rather than a general method or industrial adoption.

attribution rationaleFaraday's isolation, repeated characterization, and public authorship are primary; the original text explicitly records that Mr Gordon supplied a large quantity of residue, so a material-input share is retained for him, along with shares for unresolved laboratory and publication inputs. It also explicitly does not guess that this Gordon was the later namesake at Trinity House.

overlap boundaryOnly isolation and physical-property characterization are counted; it does not extend to all later chemical achievements related to benzene.

Evidence gapsThe current link is a Royal Institution collection description; a public full-text link to the original paper read for the research remains to be added.

Record year1895

summaryPierre Curie systematically studied how magnetism varies with temperature and magnetic field, proposed an approximate inverse relationship applicable to bounded materials and temperature ranges, and observed a ferromagnetic transition. Its later extension is still used to explain magnetic susceptibility.

M rationaleThe original measurements established a testable law and domain of applicability for classification across substances; later material characterization still uses its extension, showing continuing professional-method value.

attribution rationaleCredit for the focal person: Pierre Curie (70.00%): original 1895 systematic measurements and inductive conclusions; the 1903 collaborative apparatus is no longer included. Full attribution budget: Pierre Curie (70.00%): original 1895 systematic measurements and inductive conclusions; the 1903 collaborative apparatus is no longer included; Michael Faraday (5.00%): Faraday's prior work on magnetic questions and experiments; John Hopkinson (7.00%): the nearer prior work on temperature measurements discussed in the original text; unnamed direct research, implementation, or support inputs (6.00%): equipment and facilities inputs acknowledged in the original text, whose specific names and roles are not fully checked; unnamed direct research, implementation, or support inputs (12.00%): residual account for samples, manufacture, and measurement assistance.

overlap boundaryThe 1895 scientific law and the 1903 measuring apparatus are treated separately; Weiss's later extension is not included.

Evidence gapsThe full responsibility for all data tables in the original paper and for facilities, samples, and measurement assistance has not yet been checked page by page.

Record year1860

M rationaleSix lectures connected combustion, gases, water, and atmosphere in a coherent body of knowledge and delivered it publicly through demonstrations for young people; actual teaching and publication closed the chain of lecture notes, demonstrations, and audience. The boundary is only a set of lectures and does not count reprints, earlier versions, modern chemistry, or educational consequences.

attribution rationaleFaraday's design and actual delivery of the six lectures are primary; Crookes's contribution is limited to publishing editorship rather than creating demonstrations, and the Royal Institution provided the course and venue, while printing, apparatus, and unnamed support are retained. The central share assigned to Faraday is therefore 70%, not a measured proportion of labor time.

overlap boundaryThe six lectures and their public delivery only; reprints, modern education, and chemical consequences are not included.

Record year1859

M rationaleAfter personal inspections, it delivered decision-makers in an institution a coordinated judgment on performance, defects, personnel, and costs, improving information for one specific public technical decision. It does not assume the report was adopted, changed operations, or prevented accidents, so it is treated only as complete professional advice rather than an institutional outcome.

attribution rationaleFaraday's personal inspection, assessment, and writing of the submitted report are primary; Holmes supplied equipment and operational explanations, lighthouse keepers supplied operating observations, and Trinity House supplied the conditions of access and submission. Because actual operation and institutional inputs are not fully separated, Faraday receives only 65% as the central share.

overlap boundaryOnly the submission of inspection, observation, and judgments of defects and costs; it does not assume adoption or accident consequences.

Record year1855

M rationaleIt links deposition observations, a current boundary problem, and asymptotic corrections into a method that can help a finite specialist group; its scope is limited to a specific thin-layer axisymmetric apparatus, and complete experimental agreement or industrial coverage is unproven.

attribution rationaleRiemann completed the boundary-value model, finite-boundary corrections, and asymptotic solution for color rings; deposition laws, current relations, and original observations are explicit prior inputs and are not jointly credited to him.

overlap boundaryLimited to thin layers, finite boundaries, and asymptotic solutions; Faraday is only an explicit input for the law of proportional deposition.

Record year1872

M rationaleUnder the stated conditions for uniform thin conducting sheets, this produced a reusable method for calculating fields and currents, with records of sustained implementation; it is not extended to all eddy-current theory or modern generalizations.

attribution rationaleMaxwell gave a new solution for thin sheets and is assigned a 60% individual share; Thomson's image method, Faraday's discovery of induction, and Ohm's law are explicit inputs, while early independent but unread solutions are not treated as a transmission chain.

overlap boundaryLimited to uniform thin conducting sheets and the assumptions in the text; Felici/Jochmann priority is not decided in this linkage table.

Record year1844

M rationaleA government-commissioned underground investigation publicly recorded observations, a conditional causal hypothesis about coal dust, statements of professional limits, and report submission. It provides only local public-knowledge and consulting value for the specific case; adverse assertions such as no owner responsibility, opposition to inspection, and no conflict are separately listed as questions pending review. Implementation, deaths avoided, reform, and policy correctness are all excluded, and unknown consequences are not treated as zero.

attribution rationaleFaraday and Lyell jointly completed site observations, conditional analysis, and the signed report, and their investigative labor cannot be reliably separated, so each receives 35%. Existing witness/prior knowledge, the commissioning act, and unresolved field, institutional, and publication work make up the remaining 30%; this is a normative attribution judgment, not measured labor time.

overlap boundaryIt takes only the underground inspection, observations, conditional hypothesis, and public submission; assertions such as no owner responsibility and opposition to inspection, as well as consequences, remain separately pending-review questions.

Evidence gapsAssertions in the report about owner responsibility and opposition to inspection still require separate adjudication; implementation effects, reform effectiveness, and deaths avoided are unproven, and unknown consequences are not treated as zero.

Record year1876

M rationaleThe public explanation offered design judgment and countervailing risks under limited conditions, with actionable local reference value; actual installation, sustained use, or injuries averted are unproven.

attribution rationaleMaxwell organized the equipotential principle into bounded lightning-protection guidance; credit rests only on the actual derivation and direct inputs in that historical explanation and does not anticipate modern safety effects.

overlap boundaryLimited to the public guidance text; installation, policy adoption, and casualty effects are not counted.

M rationaleIt delivered a manual method for constructing a composite system from known lines of force, and examples support local usefulness; there is no evidence of long-term group adoption, so it is not raised by later electromagnetism's status.

attribution rationaleMaxwell gave an executable procedure for drawing lines of force; Faraday's explicit work was a limited input, while general superposition and existing diagrammatic knowledge retain an unallocated portion and are not expanded into credit for all field theory.

overlap boundaryLimited to the manual process of superposition and intersection tracing; it neither appropriates Faraday's representation of lines of force nor claims later educational effects.

Record year1878

M rationaleA one-off public knowledge service with specific content and apparatus; the complexity of the demonstration cannot represent the whole communications industry, and there is no evidence of long-term effects.

attribution rationaleCredit covers Maxwell's organization of the lecture, actual apparatus and demonstrators, and direct electrical, acoustic, and measurement inputs; do not turn later applications or generic introductions of people into shares.

overlap boundaryLimited to the Rede Lecture's public explanation/demonstration; invention credit for the telephone and related apparatus remains with others.