James Clerk Maxwell

Record year1865

M rationaleIt placed electricity, magnetism, and light within a general framework of fields and waves. Its original functional core continues to be used in electrodynamics teaching and is assessed as a cross-generational scientific foundation; later verification, vector notation, and industrial applications are separate successor achievements.

attribution rationaleMaxwell's 55% corresponds to the derivation of fields and waves and the theoretical synthesis of light; Faraday's 12% corresponds to experimental inputs such as magneto-optics, while the jointly measured 12% of Weber and Kohlrausch corresponds to the basis for electrical measurement. Fizeau and Foucault each receive 6% for independent optical measurements and must not be described as a joint experiment; the documented teaching dissemination at Caltech and MIT totals 5%, and the remaining 4% is left unallocated. The teaching share covers only verified dissemination activities and does not stand in for all later verification.

overlap boundaryLimited to the knowledge end-state of the publicly disclosed 1865 equations, transverse waves, and explanation of light; it does not absorb Hertz, later equation forms, or modern applications.

Record year1867

M rationaleThe final scope adopts M=6.0: a unified molecular-transport formalization of diffusion, viscosity, and heat conduction; it excludes the 1860 equilibrium model, the 1865/66 experiments, and modern statistical mechanics.

attribution rationaleMaxwell established the general transport method and bears the principal share; Clausius's mean-free-path foundations and corrections, and Meyer's research on internal friction, are specific inputs. Mere thematic precedence without evidence of actual adoption does not receive credit on that basis.

Record year1875

M rationaleA lasting important method for phase equilibrium; not expanded into the entire foundation of thermodynamics.

attribution rationaleMaxwell's 62% corresponds to the equal-area construction between the curve and the isothermal cycle; Clausius's 17% corresponds to the equations and virial concepts used in curve reasoning. Newton's 6% corresponds to the bounded argument excluding the inverse-distance repulsion hypothesis; Regnault's 5% corresponds to experiments supporting pressure deviations from ideal laws; 10% is reserved for the cyclic law and inputs not yet clearly attributed. Newton's share does not include cooling research, and experimental input does not equal directly measured equal-area.

overlap boundaryThe van der Waals equation of state, the critical point and Gibbs’s general equilibrium theory are excluded. Credit covers only the equal-area construction from a subcritical van der Waals curve to the coexistence line, not the equation of state, discovery of the critical point or Gibbs’s general theory. The MIT page confirms the technique’s use and the limits of the nonphysical curve segment; it does not establish exclusive historical priority.

Evidence gapsExisting sources and a limited set of principal families are retained for the assessment; evidence of continued use, independent alternative paths, and predecessor contributions is not exhaustive. This revision did not reread the full texts of all original works.

Record year1878

M rationaleThe final scope adopts M=5.0: the published statistical interpretation of the second law, limited to irreversibility and scale; it excludes credit for founding the second law, entropy, and information thermodynamics.

attribution rationaleMaxwell developed the public statistical interpretation of the second law; the specific conceptual inputs of Clausius, Boltzmann, and Thomson retain their respective credit.

Record year1871

M rationaleThe final scope adopts M=5.0: the four relations as a grouped analytical tool; the original text also states that the four equations are not independent, excluding reassignment of thermodynamics as a whole.

attribution rationaleMaxwell's 35% corresponds to the organization of thermodynamic diagrams, the quadrilateral construction, and the derivation of the four relations. Carnot's 23% corresponds to the reversible cycle and principle of efficiency; Thomson's 13% to the absolute temperature scale used; Clapeyron's 7% and Rankine's 10% to diagrammatic methods and their development; Clausius's 5% to inputs on phase change and compression behavior; and Joule's 7% to measurement of the mechanical equivalent of heat. What is allocated here is the inputs actually used by this achievement and its new derivations; predecessors are not all called coauthors of the four relations.

Record year1863—1873

M rationaleTwo rounds of absolute-resistance measurements, error correction, weighted value-setting, material adjustment, and distribution of twenty copies with engineering comparisons formed a publicly usable electrical-measurement benchmark; later technical research still uses its capacity-comparison method, so M=4.2 is adopted. No role as an internationally prevailing platform has been established.

attribution rationaleMaxwell and Jenkin jointly completed the measurements, improvements, and technical description, each receiving a 23% share; Thomson supplied the experimental method, Stewart participated in the first-round implementation, Matthiessen adjusted materials and standard copies, and Hockin assisted with measurement and comparison. Committee organization, manufacture, and other explicit work are accounted for separately; the achievement as a whole is not concentrated under Maxwell.

overlap boundaryOnly the dissemination achievement of one standard/method is counted; global communications benefits, later international systems of units, and duplicate accounting with experiments using this resistance unit in 1868 are excluded.

Record year1860

M rationaleThe equilibrium-distribution calculation connected molecular-velocity statistics with gas pressure and continues as a specialized computational tool in courses, adopting M3. Only this limited function is assessed here; unsuccessful heat-capacity predictions and later transport theory are not included.

attribution rationaleMaxwell completed the connected achievement of the 1860 collision model, receiving an 85% individual share; Clausius supplied the explicit mean-free-path premise and is not classified as an author of the distribution.

Record year1868

M rationaleThe original relation established frequency–amplitude analysis for a primary RLC circuit and, under limited assumptions, constitutes a specialized modeling capability in continuing use; therefore M=3 is adopted. The mechanical portion is only an analogy here and cannot be separately counted as a domain contribution; impedance reformulation, secondary coupling, radio, and modern resonance technology are not covered.

attribution rationaleMaxwell treated the experiment mathematically, explicitly limiting it to the primary circuit and identifying the dynamo, electromagnet, and capacitor; he mapped resistance, self-inductance, and capacitance to mechanical damping, mass, and constraint, explaining amplitude enhancement under alternating drive. Grove's experiment and conversations triggered the analysis; although foundational knowledge of circuits and oscillations was used, the source does not identify its relevant providers.

overlap boundaryOnly the limited primary-circuit model is counted; it makes no claim to the first discovery of resonance and does not count exact secondary-feedback solutions, later impedance formulations, radio deployment, or all modern value.

Record year1868

M rationaleThe square-root condition, feedback stability, and cubic condition retain explanatory and computational teaching functions, and a 2024 course provides evidence of reuse of this specific function; this is not a bonus for professional prestige.

attribution rationaleMaxwell developed the coupled model, derived the cubic condition, and explained it; Jenkin provided the named device instance directly analyzed; the device lineage and unresolved support and implementation responsibilities are only bounded inputs, and Airy's chronological relation is insufficient for attribution.

overlap boundaryOnly the analytical end-state and bounded device input are counted; chronological order is not treated as causal contribution, and no team is fabricated.

Record year1859

M rationaleThree ideal configurations, conditions for particle stability, and modes of instability constitute a durable specialized analytical capability, and the same ideal-ring problem was later replayed in specialist research; modern matrices, simulations, observations, and planetary-ring science are excluded.

attribution rationaleMaxwell gave conditional conclusions for independent particles and different rates of disruption; Laplace's results on ring attraction and stability, Otto Struve's observational analysis, and incompletely attributed optical observations and mechanical foundations jointly constitute inputs.

overlap boundaryOnly the narrow analytical end-state of ideal-ring stability is counted; predecessor theory, observations, and modern planetary-ring research are not assigned as a whole to Maxwell.

Record year1864

M rationaleThe unit-load state and member extensibility can calculate deflection in redundant elastic frameworks, and the reciprocity relation is still used later in teaching the symmetry of flexibility matrices; therefore it is taken as an important and sustained specialized analytical tool, M=3. No evidence covers net benefits across the entire industry.

attribution rationaleMaxwell stated the reciprocity theorem and gave a seven-step method for finding redundant-framework displacement using unit loads and extensibility; Clapeyron's energy theorem is its explicit premise; Lamé's lectures on elasticity are the explicit textual pathway for this attribution.

overlap boundaryOnly elastic-displacement calculation is counted, not force-diagram construction; the energy principle is assigned to Clapeyron, and all force methods, modern matrix software, and benefits across all structures are not counted.

Record year1850

M rationaleIsochromatic fringes and principal-axis directions in polarized light can reconstruct principal-stress differences and directions and, when boundary data are sufficient, obtain absolute stresses; the original experiment also checked predicted patterns using isinglass and unannealed glass. The method later remains in use for stress trajectories and structural visualization, so it is taken as an important and sustained specialized analytical capability, M=3.

attribution rationaleMaxwell organized curves, pressure-axis construction, and experimental verification into stress-field inversion; Stokes's elastic coefficients and equations, and Brewster's method of using polarized light to indicate elastic strain, are explicit inputs. The source does not establish specimen preparation or its causal share, which is retained as an unallocated part.

overlap boundaryOnly stress-field inversion and verification of experimental patterns are counted, not the elasticity equations themselves; incomplete elasticity, permanent deformation, fracture, and later finite-element or numerical algorithms are not included.

Record year1864–1870

M rationaleExisting specialist research actually reused the same reciprocal-force and geometrical function and traced an expanded design lineage, supporting an important and sustained specialized-subfield result; it remains below broader industrial-scale impact.

attribution rationaleIn his 1870 paper, Maxwell defined reciprocal frames and force representation; Rankine was responsible for frame applications, and Airy for the two-dimensional internal-stress function and its equilibrium role; the longstanding practice of force polygons is retained as unnamed prior work.

overlap boundaryOnly the continuing original function of reciprocal representation is counted; it is not expanded to all graphical statics or subsequent optimization.

Record year1870

M rationaleThe classification and explanatory terminology of 1870, through Wilson's explicit widespread adoption and actual use in calculus, and their continuation in contemporary teaching of operator language, constitute an important and sustained specialized linguistic function; therefore M=3 is adopted. This is not equivalent to inventing the underlying operators, all modern vector calculus, or impact across the entire industry.

attribution rationaleMaxwell is responsible for the classification, physical explanation, and naming; Hamilton and Tait supply explicit operator foundations and applications, while Lamé and William Thomson supply bounded directly cited inputs; all modern vector analysis is not assigned to the author.

overlap boundaryOnly use of this classification and specialized explanatory language is counted; invention of the underlying operators, complete modern vector calculus, and global infrastructure-scale impact are not counted.

Record year1879

M rationaleThe 1879 thermal-stress analysis and the appended slip conditions constitute a usable theoretical method; subsequent research directly tested the differences of the original general boundary formula on curved and moving walls, supporting an important and sustained specialist result, with M=3. The approximation limitations for near-surface distributions remain.

attribution rationaleMaxwell derived the stress balance for steady flow and developed treatment of finite-slip boundaries, thereby deriving surface conditions and the consequences of thermally induced pressure and flow; Boltzmann provided the distribution function and the assumption of a non-uniform medium, and Stokes provided the viscous term in the stress equation; Reynolds's discovery of thermal migration prompted Maxwell to extend the work to surface conditions, while Helmholtz, Piotrowski, Kundt, and Warburg respectively provided known liquid or gas slip phenomena and evidence.

overlap boundaryCount only the stress analysis and the explicit boundary extension; do not count the discovery of thermal migration, the complete Crookes explanation, modern Burnett combinations, or higher-order corrections.

Record year1868

M rationaleTwelve trials, balancing electrostatic attraction against coil repulsion, established a comparison between two systems of electrical units; an application in 1896 shows its sustained role as a specialist metrological method, with M=3. The result's approximately 3% underestimation error is retained; the measured speed is not described as the accurate speed of light.

attribution rationaleMaxwell designed the direct method and personally observed the balance; Charles Hockin conducted current comparisons and resistance tests; Gassiot supplied 2600 cells and use of the laboratory; Willoughby Smith supplied resistance coils; Forde and Fleeming Jenkin supplied a galvanometer, coils, a bridge, and keys; Becker made the electrical balance apparatus; Thomson's guard-ring geometry controlled the distribution of force.

overlap boundaryCount only this one cross-system measurement and the contribution of the null method; do not count electromagnetic theory of light again, do not call it a one-person measurement, and do not count later standardization.

Record year1866—1870

M rationaleFrom 1866 to 1870, new physical ideas were brought into specific examination questions, and years of repeated question-setting and independent testimony show that this changed the direction of study, constituting a sustained structural effect within a single institution, with M=2.0. The 1873 reform, a university-wide revival, and student numbers are not counted.

attribution rationaleAs an examiner in 1866, Maxwell introduced original physical ideas and new lines of thought into examination questions; the existing record does not list other specific question-setting actors to whom a share can be assigned.

overlap boundaryCount only the question-setting channel from 1866 to 1870; do not count student learning outcomes, drafting of the 1873 reform, or institutional effects caused by it alone.

Record year1854

M rationaleThis round retains the original research magnitude M2 and adds no numerical judgment. The checked research-paper abstract supports the historical background of the fish-eye geometrical-optics configuration; the old source was misattached, and the evidentiary statement for the original plate-design/focusing experiment is withdrawn pending supplementation, with no claim that application evidence has been verified.

attribution rationaleRevised. The input aReason explicitly says that Newton is a conceptual input that was adopted, not a contributor to the formation of this fish-eye refractive-index and conjugate-imaging result; this directly conflicts with assigning Newton a 0.20 formation share. Maxwell's original 0.80 is retained, and the removed 0.20 becomes unresolved; it is not automatically given to Maxwell because a role was excluded.

overlap boundaryDo not count broadband operation, wave optics, or fabricated devices.

Evidence gapsThe existing sources and limited primary-family assessment are retained; evidence for sustained use, independent alternative paths, and precursor contributions has not been exhausted. This revision did not reread all original works in full. Gap in the attribution judgment for this round: PMC5383818 attached in the input is in fact a structural-statics article and cannot support the fish eye or Newton 0.20; the replacement source confirms only that Maxwell proposed this geometrical-optics model in 1854. This round did not read the 1854 original text to determine whether the 0.20 contains an identifiable co-formative action, so it remains unknown rather than asserting Maxwell's sole ownership. The misattached original PMC source has been removed; this round supplemented only the configurational background from a research-paper abstract, did not directly read the 1854 original text, and has not verified the original entry's claim about an application experiment. There is no usable evidence for Newton's specific formative responsibility, so the personal link is withdrawn; Maxwell 0.80 and M2 remain research inputs pending further calibration.

Record year1879

M rationaleUnpublished electrical manuscripts were made into inspectable research sources through explicit editorial rules, numbering, transcription, and annotation; later use in the history of scholarship and scholarly reprints show their sustained archival-access role in a narrow research community, hence M=2. Five years of labor do not themselves equal five years of benefit.

attribution rationaleCredit Maxwell for arranging records according to editorial rules, numbering observations, distinguishing editorial insertions, transcribing diaries, and adding annotations, making archival experiments available for inspection; the original researcher's electrical discoveries remain that researcher's own.

overlap boundaryCount only the usable archival edition and capacity for source access; do not count the invention of the original electrical laws, the full scientific impact, or repeated experiments that produced separate precision results.

Record year1872

M rationaleThis is a narrow but genuinely reused computational capability, which independent NBS technical work decades later actually applied and corrected; it is above a one-time local publication and below an institutional structural change or a result for an entire subfield.

attribution rationaleMaxwell introduced the geometrical-mean-distance example, applied it to electromagnetism, and applied it to coil self-inductance and corrections; existing logarithmic distance potentials, electromagnetic-potential calculations, logarithmic operations, and integration are unnamed foundations.

overlap boundaryCount only the reusable specialized computational method and its limited value; do not count Rosa's institutional prestige or all of inductance science.

Record year1874–1879

M rationaleThe laboratory was built, equipped with instruments, and put to actual use by early researchers, creating sustained research capacity within the institution; early access was mainly for a small number of university members, women were initially excluded, and later received only limited holiday-course opportunities. These limitations constrain the scope of its actual benefit and do not include all later discoveries or honors.

attribution rationaleMaxwell undertook work including technical planning, laboratory inspections, and instrument specifications, and is assigned a 34% share; funding, university organization, design and construction, and unitemized building labor are counted separately. Trotter participated in the inspections, and Garnett has a record of actual laboratory classes in 1879; credit is not assigned solely by title.

overlap boundaryThe exclusion of women and restricted access reduce the range of actual accessibility; subsequent systematic courses and future discoveries are not credited back to this endpoint.

Record year1872

M rationaleUnder the stated conditions for uniform thin conducting sheets, this produced a reusable method for calculating fields and currents, with records of sustained implementation; it is not extended to all eddy-current theory or modern generalizations.

attribution rationaleMaxwell gave a new solution for thin sheets and is assigned a 60% individual share; Thomson's image method, Faraday's discovery of induction, and Ohm's law are explicit inputs, while early independent but unread solutions are not treated as a transmission chain.

overlap boundaryLimited to uniform thin conducting sheets and the assumptions in the text; Felici/Jochmann priority is not decided in this linkage table.

Record year1856

M rationaleClasses and exercises were actually provided from month 11 to month 4, and a voluntary continuation class for senior students was launched, constituting a complete teaching service over several months involving multiple people, hence M=0.5. Enrollment of 49 proves only the scale of the course; it does not equal 49 learning outcomes or career changes.

attribution rationaleIn the 1856–57 academic year, Maxwell taught the first Aberdeen natural-philosophy course and launched a fourth-year elective class; Forbes's Edinburgh course provided a basis for his organization of teaching materials; Marischal College appointed him to the chair and provided the setting for the course.

overlap boundaryCount only the classes and exercises actually provided in that academic year and the elective class that was launched; do not count all 49 students as having completed learning, subsequent career benefits, the rest of the teaching career, or multiplication by headcount.

Record year1856–1870

M rationaleA narrow observational aid that is repeatedly usable and experimentally checked; it is not extended to the whole visual subfield.

attribution rationaleMaxwell and each named observational/instrumental input retain their original formation shares; the Newtonian instrument conception, in the current evidence, proves only that an old optical function was adopted and identifies no independent additional action relative to existing optical results, so Newton is assigned zero and the remaining 0.10 is unallocated.

overlap boundaryDo not convert the continued use of Newton's optical knowledge again into an individual share of the successor observational method; this item counts only the narrow incremental observational method of Maxwell and others.

Evidence gapsExisting sources and a limited set of principal families are retained for the assessment; evidence of continued use, independent alternative paths, and predecessor contributions is not exhaustive. This revision did not reread the full texts of all original works.

Record year1876—1879

M rationaleExplanations of bridge circuits, instrument and dielectric work, and responses to later research questions for a named beneficiary formed continuous early capacity support from 1876 to 1879, with M=0.50. There is no evidence to extend this to an entire life course, a strong sustained result for a group, or all career achievements.

attribution rationaleMaxwell explained the Wheatstone bridge, arranged tests and research, visited the work, listened to difficulties, and proposed operating procedures; Richard Glazebrook completed measurements and research on biaxial crystals, and raised the specific difficulties to which Maxwell responded. Bridge principles and existing electrical-measurement operations were also necessary foundations, but there is no demonstrable complete invention lineage.

overlap boundaryCount only actual problem-solving and experimental-capacity development in the early career stage; do not count laboratory access, fellowship, the entire subsequent career or discoveries, and do not count every conversation again as an independent life change.

Record yearNot specified

M rationaleMaxwell repeatedly provided care, companionship, and daily support to the same beneficiary; a period documented by named testimony and an approximately three-week high-intensity episode exceed one local instance of help but do not reach important benefit over many years.

attribution rationaleDuring his wife's illness, Maxwell personally accompanied and cared for her; approximately three weeks of high-intensity care affected his sleep and limited his own experiments; Paget also records that he had already cared for her attentively over a long period and remained concerned for her before his death.

overlap boundaryOnly documented care, companionship, and daily support are counted; healing or life extension is not inferred from kinship status.

Record year1873

M rationaleIt connected the composite-medium problem into single-interface constructions, general local forms, and axisymmetric expansions, forming a substantive but local knowledge capability; therefore M=0.45 is adopted. No sustained external use was found, so it cannot be elevated to long-term benefit for a small group or structural institutional impact.

attribution rationaleMaxwell rendered the existing framework into single-interface constructions, general local forms, and axisymmetric expansions; Hamilton supplied the characteristic-function and focal-line framework; Cotes supplied explicit earlier optical relations; Robert Smith supplied the line-of-sight context. Ordinary laws of refraction were also used, but the record gives no named source.

overlap boundaryOnly this set of local geometrical constructions is counted; arbitrary finite beams, industrial lenses, and later optical achievements are excluded, and the three papers do not constitute three independent results.

M rationaleThe bridge-ratio method for thick and thin wires of the same material was actually implemented and obtained a no-difference result within the error range, making it stronger than a mere design proposal; therefore M=0.45 is adopted. A 1917 paper confirms the specific experimenter and method, but does not establish that it altered the general law of Ohm or multi-institution testing capacity.

attribution rationaleMaxwell modeled possible deviations in current density, designed a bridge ratio for thin and thick wires of the same material, and specified alternating strong and weak currents and reversal of the weak current to control heating, reporting a no-difference result within the error range; Chrystal recorded the measurements of actual current strengths and error limits; Ohm's law and the question of deviation defined the object of the test. No verifiable individual provider is identified for the instrumental knowledge used in bridge-ratio measurement.

overlap boundaryOnly this limited experimental scheme and the no-difference result within the error range are counted; strong and weak currents alternate, and only the weak current is reversed, so it cannot be regarded as a general alternating-current test or universal proof of Ohm's law.

Record year1858

M rationaleIt generalized perfect imaging from two object planes to other object distances, and used measurements to determine whole-system imaging relations and bounded impossibilities, forming a rich local optical analysis, M=0.30. The materials do not establish long-term important use of the original relations, nor was a perfect instrument made.

attribution rationaleMaxwell derived geometrical-optical relations for whole instruments, used two measurements to determine rays, focal points, and magnification, and gave a bounded impossibility argument for ordinary combinations of reflection and refraction; Euler, Lagrange, Gauss, Cotes, Listing, and Helmholtz are named technical predecessors in the original text, but the source does not state each one's specific division of contribution to the laws used.

overlap boundaryOnly the theorem and method are counted, not the making of generally perfect practical instruments; predecessor optics and fisheye lenses are not separately included in this item.

Record year1868

M rationaleBy using intersecting normals of two fixed curves to construct Dupin cyclides, it gave two methods for constructing points, a classification of singularities, and an interpretation as wavefronts, forming a usable set of local geometrical knowledge; therefore M=0.30 is adopted. Existing materials do not establish sustained specialist adoption or new optical instruments.

attribution rationaleMaxwell gave the focal-conic construction, its analytical extension, and its wavefront interpretation; Hamilton's characteristic function and focal-line framework are explicit premises; Dupin's existing classificatory definitions provide direct prior-work input.

overlap boundaryThe invention of the cyclide family is not counted; only the focal-conic/optical construction and analytical extension actually given in the text are counted, excluding new general optical instruments, manufacture, or downstream adoption.

Record year1849

M rationaleThe relations among fixed curves, roulette curves, and pole trajectories, together with the catenary example, form connected usable constructions richer than a single hint, adopting the local-method scale M0.30. Although modern demonstrations reproduce similar mathematics, they cannot yet establish sustained adoption of this original achievement.

attribution rationaleMaxwell completed the specific construction of the roulette curve; the Willis–Euler method chain explicitly adopted in the original text retains a share, while comparisons based only on historical priority are not counted as actual inputs.

M rationaleIt reduced minimization of squared lengths in a quadrilateral mesh to four network-potential solutions, then used corner-point masses to determine the position of every point, providing a complete local solution tool, M=0.30. Completeness of the steps does not equal strong sustained group or institutional effect.

attribution rationaleMaxwell reduced mesh minimization to four potential-function solutions and used them as corner-point masses to locate each point; Kirchhoff provided the network-potential solution method used; the foundations on which centroid positioning relies have no named source.

overlap boundaryOnly reduction and reconstruction of the quadrilateral mesh are counted, excluding all network or geometrical optimization, existing circuit rules, and later graph algorithms.

Record year1877

M rationaleThe multidimensional construction and an independent formal paper on numerical integration confirm an early technical position, constituting local numerical-method help; the limitation that 27 points fall outside the integration domain remains. It does not claim one-dimensional predecessors, subsequent general quadrature, or the practical utility of sampling within the domain. This item adopts M0.30.

attribution rationaleMaxwell constructed the multidimensional quadrature method; the explicitly adopted quadrature results of Cotes and Gauss each retain a share, while unnamed general methods retain an unallocated part.

Record yearNot specified

M rationalePaired hand drawings and actually produced plates/woodcuts of multiple kinds of surfaces provide local delivery on two levels, method and physical object; they do not include surface geometry, viewing devices, or unclear proportions, and there is no sustained institutional change.

attribution rationaleMaxwell specified paired stereograms, optional curves, a triangular-coordinate framework with opposite origins, tetrahedral proportions, a ruler, and a sector, and reported drawing a whorled surface accordingly; Monge provided representation by lines of curvature, while stereographic-coordinate conventions and responsibility for plate-making and printing cannot be attributed to named individuals.

overlap boundaryOnly the bounded drawing workflow and actual plates are counted; this is not expanded into surface geometry, viewing devices, or complete credit for plate makers.

Record year1854

M rationaleMeasures of bending for inextensible surfaces, limiting quadrilaterals, and conjugate directions provide a clear usable local geometrical explanation; an independent obituary confirms its specialist value. On this basis, the review treats it as a systematic explanation rather than an isolated definition, but no long-term structural change is established, nor is a general proof of convex-surface rigidity included. This item adopts M0.30.

attribution rationaleMaxwell organized the geometrical explanation and method for surface bending; explicitly adopted predecessor methods, including Gauss's, retain their respective credit.

Record year1846

M rationaleThe string construction for weighted focal distances was delivered, providing concrete and local drawing help for several refractive ovals, stronger than an idea alone; existing curves and optical proofs belong to predecessors. This result does not establish years of important benefit or long-term structural change in institutions or communities; higher-order constructions remain inconvenient.

attribution rationaleMaxwell derived the weighted-distance construction, designed the string-around-pegs mechanism, and extended it from two foci to three and more, directly forming an executable construction; the record cannot establish that he alone completed every auxiliary or execution detail, so an unallocated remainder is retained.

overlap boundaryOnly the narrow mechanical construction is counted; Cartesian ovals, laws of optical focusing, publication priority, and subsequent dissemination are handled separately.

M rationaleThe same set of paired energy derivatives and two classes of fixed-variable conditions organize examples from mechanics, elasticity, electromagnetism, and electrostatics into connected qualitative distinctions, forming a relatively rich local explanatory capability; therefore M=0.20 is adopted. The exact equations and factor of two have not received OCR verification, and there is no evidence of years of important benefit.

attribution rationaleMaxwell constructed paired expressions for quadratic energy derivatives, distinguishing configurational changes when conjugate variables remain constant from those when they are externally maintained; homogeneous quadratics and derivative relations are necessary foundations, but the record has no named historical sources.

overlap boundaryOnly the readable qualitative classification is counted; no exact algebraic conclusion or factor of two is inferred from ambiguous OCR, and the scale of benefit is not enlarged because of cross-domain examples.

Record year1857

M rationaleWithin one experiment, color matching, quantitative recording, and cross-observer comparison were completed, forming an operational capacity for measurement and result representation; therefore M=0.3 is adopted. Ten observers were used to test repeatability and are not added cumulatively by number of persons, equations, or components; years of use have not been established.

attribution rationaleMaxwell made the first series of instruments, designed the percentage scale, color-matching protocol, and equation representation, and bears a 52% integrative share; Bryson's disc and Purdie's and Hay's colored papers are specific inputs, while the prior work on color representation of Newton, Meyer, and Young is counted separately. Unnamed observation and operational responsibilities remain unallocated.

overlap boundaryOnly the experiment's matching, recording, and comparison are counted; later color physiology, photography, standardization, and display technology are excluded.

M rationaleIt generated other solvable configurations from solved two-dimensional electrical boundary-value problems, used guard rings and wire grids as examples, and was reused in teaching, forming a complete local analytical capability, M=0.30. There is no evidence of sustained structural effects in small institutions, communities, or industry.

attribution rationaleMaxwell stated the two-dimensional conjugate-function route, identified potential and induction functions, explained guard-ring and wire-grid examples, and developed composition and transformation theorems; Poisson supplied the two-dimensional equilibrium equation, Laplace the source-free reduction condition, Neumann the named transformation, and Thomson the geometry of the guard-ring electrometer. The existing foundations of wire grids and conjugate functions have not received complete attribution.

overlap boundaryOnly two-dimensional Laplace boundary transformations are counted, and wire-grid analysis is also limited by geometrical approximation; all conformal mapping, Thomson electrical inversion, and the invention of guard rings are excluded.

Record year1878

M rationaleUsing an ensemble of phase-space systems, it derived explicit assumptions of orbit accessibility, distinguished stationarity from uniqueness, and applied them to contact equilibrium and rotating mixtures, forming a relatively rich local theoretical clarification, M=0.40. The materials do not show that this analysis changed research capacity over the long term.

attribution rationaleMaxwell examined the theorem, defined its assumptions, gave counterexamples, and proposed an alternative ensemble framework; Boltzmann's theorem and original equilibrium problem are the objects of analysis; Henry William Watson's clear dynamical-theory derivation provides named input for the encounter conditions assessed; classical dynamics and phase-space operations have no named sources.

overlap boundaryOnly the conditional theorem analysis and listed applications are counted, excluding modern statistical mechanics, subsequent controversy or adoption, and without feeding back the achievements of Boltzmann, Watson, Hamilton, or later Gibbs.

Record year1855

M rationaleAn adjustable gyroscope and colored disc display the instantaneous axis; physical observation and multiple records of university teaching instruments establish local delivery of design, manufacture, and observation; multiple objects and locations do not equal years of important benefit.

attribution rationaleMaxwell added an adjustable structure and colour-disc visibility, made a wooden specimen, and demonstrated stable and unstable states, axes of rotation, and inertial effects; Poinsot supplied the method, Elliot supplied a similar gyroscope, Charles Ramage made the brass gyroscope and classroom replicas, and Forbes requested classroom replicas; the remaining responsibility for shop execution and replica delivery could not be disaggregated.

overlap boundaryCount only the usable demonstration instrument and its pedagogical transmission; do not count the full theory of rotation or precision latitude measurement, and do not treat the Smith label as another maker.

Record year1867

M rationaleA special solution for an inextensible thin spherical shell loaded at two opposite points along a chord, extended from the diametric case by inversion, constitutes specific and local solving assistance; it does not support a claim of sustained institutional or professional effects.

attribution rationaleMaxwell posed the spherical-envelope problem and established the stress notation; although general stress and equilibrium tools were used, their sources are unnamed and remain unallocated.

overlap boundaryCount only this special solution for restricted loading; do not extend it to arbitrary loads, finite-thickness shells, or the prior history of inversion.

M rationaleDeriving particle trajectories around a cylinder, permanent forward displacement, and elliptic-function representations in an infinite ideal fluid produced a specific local mathematical analysis, hence M=0.20. A 1999 technical history confirms the analysis and its earlier priority holders, but later drift theory cannot be credited back wholesale.

attribution rationaleMaxwell tracked particles in an infinite ideal fluid around a cylinder and derived their permanent forward displacement, calculated and plotted bounded trajectories, and marked approximation limits; Rankine's paper on streamlines supplied the basis for the drawings. Velocity-potential and stream-function foundations were also used, but the attribution record gives no sources.

overlap boundaryCount only this special solution in an infinite, perfect fluid; some intermediate trajectories were drawn by eye, and neither general drift theory nor real-fluid effects are counted.

Record year1860

M rationaleAn observed capability of spectral-light/white-light reference measurement; 33 observations are not 33 units of outcome.

attribution rationaleMaxwell, Katherine Maxwell, Simpson, makers, and Young/Brewster/Helmholtz inputs retain the original allocation; Newton's diagram only shows that earlier optical content was used, not a new unconsumed action, so Newton is assigned zero and 0.10 remains unallocated.

overlap boundaryContinued use of Newtonian optics remains in the original optics M; this item counts only the additional delivery of the 1856/1860 spectral-light measurement apparatus, observations, and conditional equations.

Evidence gapsExisting sources and a limited set of principal families are retained for the assessment; evidence of continued use, independent alternative paths, and predecessor contributions is not exhaustive. This revision did not reread the full texts of all original works.

Record year1861

M rationaleThree filter-separated photographs were superimposed in projection to form a coloured ribbon, and surviving slides provide independent corroboration, constituting a complete local prototype demonstration, hence M=0.30. Insufficient red and green sensitivity made the reproduction unfaithful and did not attain a mature commercial system or long-term structural effect.

attribution rationaleMaxwell set three spectral primaries, showed them with three lamps, and presented and superimposed three colour-separated images; Thomas Sutton collaborated with Maxwell in taking the three filtered ribbon photographs. Filters, photosensitive materials, and processing were necessary inputs, but their providers are unspecified; Young's colour-triangle framework is also an explicit prior input.

overlap boundaryCount only the projected recombination of three colour-separated photographs made on site; do not count full colour accuracy, commercial colour photography, modern sensor lineages, later colour prints, or the invention of three-colour theory.

Record year1876

M rationaleThe public explanation offered design judgment and countervailing risks under limited conditions, with actionable local reference value; actual installation, sustained use, or injuries averted are unproven.

attribution rationaleMaxwell organized the equipotential principle into bounded lightning-protection guidance; credit rests only on the actual derivation and direct inputs in that historical explanation and does not anticipate modern safety effects.

overlap boundaryLimited to the public guidance text; installation, policy adoption, and casualty effects are not counted.

M rationaleIt delivered a manual method for constructing a composite system from known lines of force, and examples support local usefulness; there is no evidence of long-term group adoption, so it is not raised by later electromagnetism's status.

attribution rationaleMaxwell gave an executable procedure for drawing lines of force; Faraday's explicit work was a limited input, while general superposition and existing diagrammatic knowledge retain an unallocated portion and are not expanded into credit for all field theory.

overlap boundaryLimited to the manual process of superposition and intersection tracing; it neither appropriates Faraday's representation of lines of force nor claims later educational effects.

Record yearNot specified

M rationaleHead reference, mirror-prism alignment, two sets of position records, construction of the motion centre, and treatment of degeneracy form a bounded measurement procedure, a substantial local tool; precision, safety, clinical adoption, and new physiological discoveries are not counted.

attribution rationaleMaxwell added mirror-prism-board alignment, recorded paired positions, constructed the centre, and supplied alternative treatment when nearly collinear; Helmholtz supplied the adopted dental-cast skull-reference method, while the source of ordinary perpendicular-bisector construction is unnamed.

overlap boundaryCount only the complete but narrow measurement procedure; do not extend it to clinical use or original ownership of the reference method.

Record year1877–1879

M rationaleThe actual null test using grounded shielding and an electrometer, together with its conditional explanation, constitutes a relatively strong local experimental-check delivery; the numerical exponent bound is unreliable, and the limitations of earlier predecessors and of not uniquely proving the force law are retained.

attribution rationaleMaxwell described the improved conducting-shell experiment, null observations, and mathematical theory; MacAlister performed the experiment, Cavendish supplied the precedent repeated and compared, Thomson supplied the quadrant electrometer, and Laplace supplied an earlier proof of the relevant uniform-shell condition.

overlap boundaryCount only this experimental check and explanation; do not turn predecessor experiments, instrument names, or unreliably transcribed numerical bounds into Maxwell's exclusive achievement.

Record year1879

M rationaleModern technical text actually uses or compares the same lower bound for cylinders and thin-disk approximation, supporting real reuse as a restricted computational reference; it closes only one technical comparison and is insufficient to infer sustained, important disciplinary effects over more than a century.

attribution rationaleMaxwell introduced and carried out a long-cylinder energy bound/harmonic approximation and applied it to a finite-thickness disk; Cavendish supplied the background for the bound, Ferrers's spherical-harmonics chapter was an explicit working reference, and sources for general potential and capacitance theory remain unresolved.

overlap boundaryCount only the restricted approximation method and one reuse; do not count all end corrections, modern numerical methods, or physical deployment.

M rationaleThe near-confocal configuration and objective-lens analysis under material constraints constitute a usable set of local methods, M=0.20. Independent accounts confirm its delivery, but there is no evidence of comparative adoption or superiority over the Kirchhoff configuration.

attribution rationaleMaxwell set the material-constrained prism/lens problem, analysed focus compensation, loss of colour separation, and aberration limits, and derived conditions for single- and double-lens placement and quartz-distance relations; Kirchhoff supplied the named configuration of two achromatic lenses and a parallel prism beam. Foundations of refraction, refractive index, and focal length have no named source.

overlap boundaryCount only this restricted configuration; it explicitly trades colour separation away and is limited by prisms and aberration, so neither comparative superiority nor broad professional adoption is counted.

Record year1868

M rationaleA lens configuration placing real fused images in front was made by Elliott, and viewer feedback exists, constituting design, an object, and restricted viewing assistance, M=0.20. There is no evidence of years of significant benefit or a strong sustained group effect.

attribution rationaleMaxwell proposed a configuration of inverted slides, two half-foot convex lenses, and one larger lens for front-positioned fused images; Elliott Brothers made the apparatus; existing stereoscopic techniques, lenses, and paired images were necessary conditions, but the record provides no attributable specific providers for those inputs.

overlap boundaryCount only the recorded, specific constructed configuration and viewing effect; do not count the invention of stereoscopic vision, production scale, extent of adoption, or performance comparisons.

Record year1873

M rationaleThe material-specific observation of a flow effect and its relaxation explanation are independently confirmed as an actual result, slightly above the substantial-local-knowledge threshold, M=0.18. There is no evidence of sustained rheological or industrial capability, and parallel observations and the 1872/73 difference limit priority.

attribution rationaleMaxwell set up the experiment and reported the transient flow effect; Poisson's theory, David Brewster's observation, and Augustin Fresnel's explanation are named inputs. Polarization, Nicol apparatus, and experimental-material preparation were indispensable, but no providers are named.

overlap boundaryCount only the transient observation and relaxation explanation in this material; do not count measured relaxation rates, exclusive priority, or later rheological and industrial applications.

Record year1857

M rationaleActually holding classes and assigning exercises on false balances and work constitutes substantial local teaching assistance; unclosed benefits over continuous years are not counted.

attribution rationaleMaxwell reported opening a Monday-evening course for workers and assigning relevant exercises, directly providing teaching service; the sources of course knowledge and any co-instructors are unrecorded and remain unallocated.

overlap boundaryCount only the evidenced classes and exercises; do not infer attendance volume, occupational benefits, or continuous effects from 1857 to 1860.

Record year1876

M rationaleBy connecting design, instrument arrangement, and readings in the same experimental task, it created a delivered bounded reference capability, hence M=0.2. The material shows no actual sustained use and cannot reach the M=0.5 tier of years of significant benefit.

attribution rationaleMaxwell selected, defined, and organized experimental apparatus methods, taking a 42% synthesis share; Thomson's supports and mirror readings, Poggendorff's precise mirror readings, kinematics and torsion-balance examples, the Gauss-Weber suspension-reading method, and Ramsden positioning examples were respectively actual inputs. Unnamed origins of readings and publication-execution responsibility remain unallocated.

overlap boundaryCount only this bounded experimental reference synthesis; do not enlarge its effects by length, number of parts, presumed readers, or later discoveries.

M rationaleCoupled-coil ideal analysis for the self-excited-machine problem provided a bounded local explanation; the original text and a 1956 technical history confirm that the model was delivered, hence M=0.10. Design efficacy for real machines with iron cores, or long-term change to professional systems, is unproven.

attribution rationaleMaxwell established a coupled-coil and commutator model, proposed maintenance conditions and winding constraints, and gave a qualified explanation for the shunt case; Siemens's machine supplied the empirical problem stimulus, Wheatstone's experiment supplied the discussed shunt context; Maxwell also expressly used equations (4) and (5) from his paper on the electromagnetic field.

overlap boundaryCount only this idealized current-maintenance analysis; iron-core effects are simplified and the shunt explanation itself is rough, so neither the invention of all machines nor actual design efficacy is counted.

Record year1870

M rationaleThe hill/dale organization and counting expression brought a discernible increment of knowledge, and an institutional teaching chain in 1902, 1908, and 1922 shows cross-period reuse; records are sparse and insufficient to establish long-term structural improvement in a small institution.

attribution rationaleMaxwell supplied a bounded explanation and organization of contour lines, mountains, watersheds, and waterways; Johann Benedict Listing's enumeration rule was used to derive counts of natural regions; the sources of surveying, gravity, and contour practice remain unresolved.

overlap boundaryDo not count Cayley's prior achievement, Morse/GIS successors, or presumed benefits to all students.

Record year1876

M rationaleIt delivered an integrated reference capability, from explanation to experiment, for the same specialized problem; there is no evidence of sustained adoption.

attribution rationaleThis item counts only Maxwell's new service of organizing capillary theory and experiment into a reference synthesis: the principal writing receives 0.70, and undifferentiated editorial and structuring inputs retain 0.30. Newton's, Laplace's, Gauss's, Poisson's, and the experimenters' original results do not receive individual shares again merely because they are reviewed.

overlap boundaryThe original formulas, experiments, and theories remain credited to their respective original outcomes; this item consumes only the value of reference organization, and content-predecessor credits such as Newton 0.02 are removed.

Evidence gapsExisting sources and a limited set of principal families are retained for the assessment; evidence of continued use, independent alternative paths, and predecessor contributions is not exhaustive. This revision did not reread the full texts of all original works.

Record year1866

M rationaleThe public experimental setup and inspectable record provide actual methodological knowledge, M=0.1. Corrected figures and a doubtful temperature law are not counted again as correct results; unreviewed material is also insufficient to establish long-term change in professional capability.

attribution rationaleMaxwell recorded the experiment's pressure and temperature observations; Mrs Maxwell continually added coal and controlled steam temperature; mechanical apparatus and baseline measurement methods were also necessary inputs, but their providers are unconfirmed.

overlap boundaryCount only the delivery of the experimental setup and record; do not count the doubtful temperature law, corrected figures, or later effects in professional fields.

Record year1855

M rationaleA design in which two equal spheres roll purely on a map and a pointer accumulates changes to represent area provided a substantial but local mathematical instrument proposal, M=0.10. The original text explicitly says it was not constructed, so there is no physical measurement, deployment, or sustained institutional result.

attribution rationaleMaxwell proposed the principle of pure rolling by two equal spheres and a complete planimeter design, taking 68%; a Sang instrument actually seen supplied the direct trigger and comparison, with 20% credited to that input. Installation details explicitly borrowed in the original text remain unallocated; unread papers or the later-seen Amsler instrument are not retrospectively filled in as inputs.

overlap boundaryCount only the theoretical instrument principle; do not call it a constructed or deployed product, nor count the origin of planimetry or pre-existing instruments such as Amsler's.

Record year1870

M rationaleThe lecture fully explained measurement, the limits of analogy, and the relation of mathematics to physics, and is assigned M=0.1 as substantial local knowledge assistance. The public text alone cannot demonstrate sustained institutional or professional-group effects, nor does it count technical classification twice.

attribution rationaleMaxwell developed the relation between mathematical and physical inquiry; Sylvester supplied the theme of disciplinary relations and was called a guide; Spottiswoode supplied the classificatory route Maxwell expressly followed; Tyndall supplied the molecular perspective he used.

overlap boundaryCount only this lecture's explanatory contribution; do not count co-authorship of the scientific discoveries cited, sustained institutional effects, or duplicated benefit from technical classification.

Record year1875

M rationaleA three-dimensional object turned surface relations into an observable teaching tool; a museum object and several named distribution nodes prove delivered substantial local assistance, hence M=0.1. There is no evidence that it caused sustained institutional structural change.

attribution rationaleMaxwell made and circulated a plaster surface model for teaching, taking 54%; Gibbs's surface theory was the direct basis of this object. Unresolved making and distribution responsibilities remain unallocated, and recipients or historical precedents do not automatically receive individual shares.

overlap boundaryCount only the model's materialization, teaching use, and circulation; do not count authorship of Gibbs's equilibrium theory, nor regard it as an accurate equation of state for water.

Record year1877

M rationaleThe deliverable organized diagrammatic explanations of several uses into one limited but referable synthesis, hence M=0.1. Cross-use itself does not prove a larger scope of benefit, and fixed material does not support deeper sustained effects.

attribution rationaleWatt's predecessor share in this successor reference-knowledge outcome is 8%. Maxwell supplied the unified explanation of multi-purpose diagrammatic methods; Rankine's diagrammatic method, Gibbs's thermodynamic representation, indicator diagrams, and Clapeyron's restricted input are each credited, with 8% retained for unresolved responsibility; authors' earlier discoveries are not counted again as original work.

overlap boundaryCount only the reference organization of this diagrammatic explanation; do not presume readers, long-term use, or subsequent scientific discoveries.

Record yearNot specified

M rationaleThis is a completed classificatory explanation and bounded reference capability, not a new scientific discovery; coverage of several states of matter does not equal several outcomes or sustained disciplinary effects.

attribution rationaleMaxwell organized a reference exposition across states of matter and stress, integrating experiments and formal contributions actually used; Andrews's systematic experiments and observations of inherited stress and after-effects are the principal content pillars, while earlier observations and terminological inputs are narrower and the unknown remainder remains unallocated.

overlap boundaryCount only the delivered reference synthesis; do not presume readers or later discoveries, nor turn independent discoveries of cited scientists into co-authorship.

Record year1875

M rationaleA completed, reusable organization of explanation and criticism; there is no result concerning sustained use or beneficiaries.

attribution rationaleThis item's M counts only the service of organizing, comparing, and criticizing the reference synthesis: Maxwell's principal writing receives 0.70, organization of the wave demonstrations actually used for explanation receives 0.10, and 0.20 remains unallocated. Newton's, Faraday's, Kelvin's, Le Sage's, Hooke's, Challis's, and others' original theories remain credited to their original outcomes and do not receive individual shares again because they are reviewed.

overlap boundaryAll compared theories are content objects only and their original authors are not credited again in the reference synthesis; do not claim Maxwell originated these theories.

Evidence gapsExisting sources and a limited set of principal families are retained for the assessment; evidence of continued use, independent alternative paths, and predecessor contributions is not exhaustive. This revision did not reread the full texts of all original works.

Record year1873

M rationaleThe lecture organized molecular research into a public explanation with clear knowledge boundaries, constituting a delivered communication outcome, adopting M0.1. Existing material is insufficient to establish a deeper or more durable scale of benefit.

attribution rationaleCredit is limited to the author's organization and explicit source inputs for the 1873 lecture; the 1875 Atom entry is counted separately, and the same complete article is not used twice across the two items.

overlap boundaryCount only content unique to the 1873 lecture; the 1875 Atom entry is listed separately and is not counted again.

Record year1875

M rationaleThe Atom entry organized existing atomic ideas and molecular research, providing a limited-scope reference knowledge synthesis, adopting M0.2. This score does not include atomic theory itself or all later achievements of molecular science.

attribution rationaleMaxwell completed the organization and synthesis of the reference entry; each prior discovery explained has its original author, and his own previous research does not become a new discovery again through reintroduction.

overlap boundaryCount only the synthesis and communication of the Atom entry; content unique to the 1873 molecular lecture is listed separately.

Record yearNot specified

M rationaleExplaining root merger, changing roles of extrema, and discontinuity of solutions delivered one instance of local conceptual clarification; there is no general operational tool or sustained course, but it is more complete than isolated trace assistance.

attribution rationaleMaxwell explained discontinuity through variation of coefficients, merger of minimum and maximum roots, and an example of fastest ascent; the variational foundations on which the extremal-root conditions depend have no named source.

overlap boundaryCount only the conceptual explanation in this example; do not penalize it further because it was not industrially deployed, and do not expand it into a general tool.

M rationaleFor paired singular one-dimensional rods, it points out that individual inverse-square attractions diverge while their difference can be finite, so divergent terms cannot be cancelled arbitrarily; this is a narrow conceptual clarification, M=0.050. The latter inference was criticized and cannot be extended into a general method for singular integrals or a sustained teaching outcome.

attribution rationaleMaxwell explained that paired inverse-square attractions near a point each diverge while their difference is finite, thereby showing that pairwise cancellation gives an incorrect general conclusion; named predecessors for inverse-square attraction and limit/divergence reasoning are not listed.

overlap boundaryCount only the first-half clarification of one-dimensional rod pairing; do not count new three-dimensional gravitational discoveries, later propositions about fluids/disks/ellipsoids, or their defects.

Record year1876

summaryMaxwell's reference article synthesizes fluid instruments and vacuum technology, drawing on technical material from several predecessors. Galileo's share here is the prior-history share for suction-pump limits and the vacuum question actually used by the article.

M rationaleA limited, actionable vacuum-technology synthesis was delivered, M=0.1 as local reference capability. There is no evidence of sustained effects, and neither checking stages nor the technical title can enlarge the scope.

attribution rationaleThis person's credit: Galileo Galilei (5.00%): attribution for the suction-pump limit/vacuum turning point actually used by the article; do not upgrade it into an independent historical-fact conclusion. Full budget: James Clerk Maxwell (38.00%): selected and organized pump history, leakage, evacuation, testing, and vacuum research, directly producing the final output.; Ctesibius (5.00%): supplied the early technical starting point of piston pumps.; Hero (3.00%): supplied material on siphons and fountain devices.; Galileo Galilei (5.00%): attribution for the suction-pump limit/vacuum turning point actually used by the article; do not upgrade it into an independent historical-fact conclusion.; Torricelli (10.00%): supplied the core route of mercury-tube experiments and explanation of atmospheric pressure.; Otto Von Guericke (8.00%): supplied improvements in mechanical evacuation and diagnosis of imperfect vacuum.; II79 HOOKE BOYLE HAUKSBEE SMEATON PUMP CHAIN (9.00%): supplied a chain of pump making, experimental use, and subsequent improvements.; M. Deleuil (5.00%): supplied an example of a long piston pump without packing.; Sprengel (7.00%): supplied the core example of segmented mercury evacuation.; II79 VACUUM RESEARCH AND IMPROVEMENT SOURCES (6.00%): supplied material on dehydration, adsorption, rarefied-gas research, and vacuum phenomena.; Unallocated (2.00%): retains responsibility for unidentified manual-publication execution.; Unallocated (2.00%): retains responsibility for unnamed sources of fused joints, sulfuric acid, and caustic potash treatment.

overlap boundaryCount only this limited reference synthesis; do not infer greater effects from presumed readers, later discoveries, physical production, or the author's reputation.

Evidence gapsNo sustained reading or implementation effect has been established; historical attributions in the article do not independently prove technical priority.

Record year1853

M rationaleA model of a rectangular sheet under normal quadratic drag gives quadrant drag and torque balance, providing a delivered explanation of limited rotation and lateral drift, M=0.05. Later research on the same topic does not establish that this approximation was validated or continually adopted.

attribution rationaleMaxwell used quadrant drag and torque balance to explain constrained rotation and lateral drift of paper; the location of the centre of pressure must be experimentally determined, but no experimenter is named, and the provider of the existing hydrodynamic pressure law invoked is likewise unspecified.

overlap boundaryCount only the model for a rectangular plane under the assumption of normal quadratic drag; do not count validated quantitative performance, sustained application, or foundational contributions beyond named ones.

Record year1855

M rationaleA complete service of food, household work, and daily support during a period of illness is retained; repeated deliveries are stronger than a single instance of help, but cure or life-course benefit is not included.

attribution rationaleMaxwell supervised his father's treatment and made toast, beef tea, and medicinal drinks, directly providing daily care; an unnamed doctor was responsible for professional treatment, so the corresponding responsibility remains unallocated.

overlap boundaryCount only the limited scope of direct family support and professional treatment; do not include cure or long-term life benefit.

Record year1876

M rationaleThe short article specifically compares several diffusion experiments, media, and molecular explanations and identifies unresolved questions, providing substantial local technical discrimination; score is not determined by length, and later adoption is not assumed.

attribution rationaleMaxwell wrote the comparative review; Graham, Joule, Thomson, Exner, Stefan, and Wróblewski supplied classifications, experiments, theoretical expectations, or experimental inputs actually used in the article; molecular and absorption foundations are unnamed.

overlap boundaryCount only the review's comparison and discrimination; do not credit Maxwell with original diffusion laws or the predecessors' experiments as wholes.

Record year1878

M rationaleA one-off public knowledge service with specific content and apparatus; the complexity of the demonstration cannot represent the whole communications industry, and there is no evidence of long-term effects.

attribution rationaleCredit covers Maxwell's organization of the lecture, actual apparatus and demonstrators, and direct electrical, acoustic, and measurement inputs; do not turn later applications or generic introductions of people into shares.

overlap boundaryLimited to the Rede Lecture's public explanation/demonstration; invention credit for the telephone and related apparatus remains with others.

Record year1855

M rationaleHelping someone rise and making the sickbed for several consecutive days constituted limited but complete care assistance, stronger than a single isolated help, and is assigned M=0.030 as local actual help; there is no evidence to extend it into recovery or therapeutic effects.

attribution rationaleMaxwell participated in the morning in helping Pomeroy rise and making the sickbed; an unnamed nurse completed the work with him. Mrs. Pomeroy arrived only after the task was completed and cannot be a co-provider of this outcome.

overlap boundaryCount only the stated assistance with rising and making the sickbed; do not count the patient's recovery, medical efficacy, or the broader care process.

Record year1856

M rationaleOne lesson on decimal fractions has specific delivery and source authentication, M=0.01. Duration, participant number, and learning improvement are all unrecorded and cannot be used either to raise or remove this delivered service.

attribution rationaleMaxwell reported teaching decimal fractions at the Working College; the Working College supplied the named venue and organizational setting; knowledge of decimal fractions was the teaching content actually used in the service.

overlap boundaryCount only this lesson on decimals; do not count unknown class hours, attendance, learning outcomes, or wider educational effects.